Using Graphic Novels for Reading Comprehension

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How graphic novels support reading comprehension strategy development in children Beverley Brenna

Abstract

This qualitative case study explored the relationship between comprehension strategies and graphic novels in one Grade 4 classroom, utilising children as infor- mants. The primary research questions related to chil- dren’s applications of metacognitive reading compre- hension strategies as well as the potential for graphic novels to support the students’ development as read- ers.Findingsdemonstratedthatthechildrenwereable to apply two types of strategies to their reading of graphic novels: ‘keys’ that supported form-specific comprehension strategies and ‘master keys’ that sup- ported more general comprehension strategies that could be applied to other types of texts. Student pref- erences for graphic novels aligned with their prefer- encesforreadingnarrativenovelsandnon-fiction,and didnotalignwithpreferencesregardingcomicsorcar- toons. Student preferences for reading graphic nov- els increased throughout the study. Fluent student re- sponsestographicnovelsthroughprocessdramawere identified. Implications of the study involve the em- ployment of graphic novels to support metacognitive strategies for reading and writing as well as to facili- tate process drama.
Key words: metacognitive reading comprehension strategies, graphic novels, child as informant, process drama
Introduction
This qualitative exploratory case study research op- erated to illuminate the particular points of connec- tion between comprehension strategies and graphic novels. The study was conducted as classroom re- search in one rural Grade 4 classroom at ‘Cloverdale School’. The results of the study, while contextualised within the group of participants, offer implications related to classroom teaching and teacher education in terms of the value of graphic novels as classroom resources.
Cary (2004) positions graphic novels under the um- brella of ‘comics’. Carter (2009) describes graphic nov- els as “sequential art narratives”, building on Eisner’s (1985) definition of comics as ‘sequential art’. Graphic
novels can be considered as classroom resources that address the wide range of what it means to teach English Language Arts – listening, speaking, read- ing, writing, viewing and representing – in addition to developing critical literacy skills that may be re- lated to visual culture (Park, 2010). Although Carter offers evidence to suggest that graphic novels are in- creasinginpopularitywithstudents,studiesexploring the graphic novel form with elementary students are limited.
Isolated studies support the use of graphic novels in secondary classrooms for the purposes of extend- ing struggling readers’ comprehension skills, includ- ing inferencing (Smetana et al., 2009) and critical literacy (Chun, 2009). One case study of a qualita- tive nature, conducted with Grade 3 students, cur- rently seeks to explore how a multimodal literacy approach anchored in graphic novels can enhance English Language Learners’ legitimacy and peripher- ality in small-group literacy discussions (Bomphray, 2011).
While some research has been conducted to con- nect particular metacognitive strategies with various genres (McTavish, 2008), there are no studies with elementary school children that deeply explore metacognitive comprehension monitoring related to the reading of the graphic novel form. In my study, children’s metacognitive knowledge regarding com- prehension strategies (Baker and Brown, 1984; Brenna, 1995a,b; Flavell, 1979) was explicitly explored in rela- tionship to the classroom sets of graphic novel texts and the manner in which students responded to these texts.
Research questions
The primary research questions were as follows: 1. What comprehension strategies can students in a Grade 4 classroom learn to apply to a study of age- appropriate graphic novels? 2. In what ways might graphic novels support stu- dents’ development as readers?
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The research framework Theoretical and conceptual underpinnings
Constructivist theory, specified by understandings regarding metacognition, underpins the idea that readers build their own meaning during reading (McTavish, 2008). Social constructivism contributes to the image of readers as problem solvers by reminding educators of the importance of mediation in learning (Vygotsky, 1978). As a central element of school read- ing programmes, research related to reading compre- hension is critical as educators seek to discover fur- ther what occurs ‘behind the eyes’ (Smith, 2004) of young readers and facilitate meaning-making through the supported application of particular strategies be- fore, during and after reading. Cantrell et al. (2010) identify that reading comprehension relies on mul- tiple skills and strategies including text-based de- coding and lexical skills, domain knowledge, topic knowledge and interest and cognitive monitoring and strategy use. Various active reading strategies, applied consciously and flexibly to the reading situation, have become central in elementary teaching curricula, yet many of these strategies have not been explored fully with multimodal texts, developed to their full poten- tial in terms of teaching methodology or addressed as ‘master keys’ that have the capacity to work across a varietyoftextualsettings.Such“masterkeystrategies” could unlock meaning embedded in narrative text as well as graphic text, and support the development of students’ writing as well as reading processes.
My employment of children as informants related to their own cognitive processes follows other work in educational research related to literacy (Brenna, 1995a,b; Strickland et al., 1991). The conceptual lens utilised by my study involved metacognitive compre- hension strategies specifically related to a knowledge of self as well as a knowledge of task and text. The re- search involved a textual form that has been steadily making its way into schools and where the reading of images is as important as comprehensive decoding of, and personal response to, written language.
Methods
The study was conducted during 10 1-hour-long ses- sions, over a period of 5 weeks, in a Grade 4 rural classroom at Cloverdale School. The classroom con- tained 21 students, one experienced teacher who was also a part-time librarian and one intern – a support- ive student–teacher ratio for small-group work during the project. We were thus able to run three concur- rent ability groups related to strategy teaching, with each group focusing on a different text selected on the basis of themes and level of difficulty. The class- room teacher’s main English Language Arts teaching goalsinvolvedsupportingthedevelopmentofreading strategies and reading for pleasure.
The class of students exhibited varied reading inter- ests, abilities, cultures and languages in addition to of- fering diversity in terms of different socio-economic family backgrounds. Three students in the classroom had recently immigrated from Germany and spoke English as a second language, while one other student spoke both Chinese and Mandarin at home. Some of the students came from farming families, some from families working in the nearby city and some from families working in local businesses such as a nearby potash mine.
Duringeachofmyresearchvisits,Iworkedwithsmall groups of students within a teaching framework facil- itated by the classroom teacher. The teacher utilised Booth and Lundy’s (2007) resource manual as well as drawing on Thompson’s (2008) teaching suggestions. Ingeneral,aparticularcomprehensionstrategywasin- troduced to the whole class by the classroom teacher, and then practised by students in their small groups in the context of the graphic novel selected for their group’s ability level. Multiple student copies of the graphic novels – all animal fantasies – were available through the support of a research grant provided by the University of Saskatchewan. These texts included Spires’ (2009) Binky the Space Cat, Holm’s (2005) Baby- mouse: Queen of the World and Smith’s (2008) graphic novel adaptation of The Tale of Despereaux. A box con- taining 50 additional age-appropriate graphic novels (some multiple copies) was also placed in the class- room for mini-lessons and independent reading (see Bibliography for a list of titles). The titles provided to the students for independent reading ranged widely across various genres.
The study utilised classroom observation, informal discussions with students, participatory small-group activities supported by the researcher and semi- structured protocols in the form of written ques- tionnaires to explore the students’ application of comprehension strategies to graphic novels as well as studentpreferencesinrelationtothegraphictextspro- vided in class. Results of the study, due to the nature ofcasestudyresearch,aretentativeandcontextualised (Merriam, 1998).
Results, conclusions, interpretations Reading preferences for graphic novels
At the beginning of the study, the Grade 4 students didnotshowanyparticularpreferencesforthegraphic novel form, and it is important to note that it was a new form to many of them. “There’s less words” was a common comment from the children as they worked to provide an early descriptor of graphic nov- els. As the study progressed, the students began to demonstrate preferences for graphic novels within a practiceofreadingforpleasure,andparticulargraphic novels were cited as offering an opportunity for what
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Table 1: Preferences regarding form at the close of the study (N=21) Reading First Second Last Second- preferences choice choice choice last choice Novels 6 2 1 2 Short stories 0 3 5 2 Poetry 0 1 8 3 Comics 3 2 2 4 Cartoons 3 0 1 5 Graphic novels 5 10 1 1 Non-fiction 4 3 3 4
Sturm (2001) calls ‘entranced reading’ (p. 98). Com- ments from students reflected the depth of their per- sonal response, as in Anton’s statement related to an initial scene from The Tale of Despereaux: “I was born withbighandsandfeet(too)!”exclaimedAnton.“Both my hands and feet weighed at least one pound!”
The classroom teacher noted sustained interest from studentsinself-selectinggraphicnovelsfromtheclass- room box, and at times had to remind the students to put these books away during other subjects. The students’ interest in reading was quietly celebrated as their teachers had hoped that interest in the graphic texts would increase time spent reading and subse- quently reading skill level, the application of com- prehension strategies and instil a habit of reading for pleasure.Oneinterestingcommentfromtheclassroom teacherreflectedherobservationsthatboysintheclass overcame gender stereotypes and began reading and enjoying the Babymouse series.
At the close of the study, students were surveyed in terms of preferences related to the reading of regular novels, short stories, poetry, comics, cartoons, graphic novels and non-fiction.
Table 1 illustrates the results of this survey, identify- ing the diverse range of preferences within this study classroom. This suggests that graphic novels provide a positive context through which to teach important reading skills and strategies.
Intriguingly, individual preferences for graphic novels were most commonly preceded or followed by regu- larnovelsandnon-fiction,ratherthanotherillustrated forms. The results that young readers may see comics and graphic novels as different in terms of a hierarchy of reading preferences may work as a contradiction to Cary’s (2004) definition that positions graphic novels under the umbrella of ‘comics’.
Comprehension strategies
‘Master key’ comprehension strategies suitable for a variety of textual forms. During the study, I noted that many
comprehension strategies appropriate for use with other textual forms were modelled and utilised with respect to the students’ current graphic novel reading. Observationsweretriangulatedwithstudents’ownre- sponses on the questionnaires regarding their reading process,andthese‘overarching’comprehensionstrate- gies can be examined as ‘master keys’ – suitable for unlocking meaning from a variety of textual forms. Students’ general reading comprehension strategies, presented in Table 2, are wide-ranging. These strate- gies were taught and modelled by the classroom teacher,andthenpractisedbyherpupils,whoworked independently to make sense of them. One group, for example, reflected on the use of prediction:
‘Why do we do these predictions before we read?’ Ellary said. ‘Wait – so we can compare them to the book to see if they’re right...and so you get all excited!’ His thoughts turned to the text at hand, and Miguel interrupted: ‘I’m curious to see if the mouse lives in a castle or outside’. The focus group talked about the fact that everyone has different answers when it comes to predicting. “‘Cause we have different opinions’, Andy said. ‘Nobody’s right and nobody’s wrong.’”
Another group, exploring the splash page of a graphic novelnewtothem,offeredthefollowingcommentary:
“A mouse with a sword, in clothes!” “That’s not a sword, that’s a pin!”
The details noted on the splash page prompted a dis- cussion about genre, and the group deliberated on what kind of story this would be. The idea of animal fantasy was easily elicited by the teacher from student comments that mentioned ‘talking animals!’ and that “fake things happen!” While particular topics for ana- lytical thinking, such as a determination of genre, are intentional on the part of the teacher, it is important to note that an emphasis on genre was elicited by stu- dent comments, rather than presented as part of a pre- programmed package of study.
Summarising previous plot and character details dur- ingthegraphicnovelstudies,stoppingtopredictcom- ing events in the respective stories and making infer- ences based on given information in the illustrations as well as in the text were other comprehension strate- gies supported in, or added to, these young readers’ reading comprehension repertoires. A lesson begin- ning with student inferences about what will happen nextconcludedbyrevisitingtheseinferences:“Inyour journals, let’s look at what you first thought...”said the teacher. “And now complete the statement ‘Now I think...’aboutwhatisgoingtohappeninthisbook.” Students were also invited to draw illustrations as evi- dence for their thinking.
Synthesising skills were encouraged as the teacher askedstudentsto‘burstthebubble’(BoothandLundy, 2007) and bring characters out of the text and into
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Table 2: Comprehension strategies non-specific and specific to graphic novels Comprehension Master comprehension keys suitable support for a range of textual forms Graphic novel keys Strategies based on awareness of self • Making connections to self, other texts and the world • Responding through drama • Monitoring meaning by self-questioning Strategies based on awareness of task • Previewing and predicting • Rereading for meaning • Summarising • Reading to understand characters • Making inferences based on content • Synthesising through drama Strategies based on awareness of text • Conducting word repair • Exploring parts of the book (i.e. Table of Contents) • Interpreting onomatopoeia • Summarising plot and character details • Identification of ‘flashbacks’ • Interpreting lettering style, format and colour • Applying purpose for depth of field choices to comprehension • Responding to meaning embedded in types of speech bubbles • Locating narration • Examining narrative distance provided by visual information • Identifying time changes through explorations of visual information
dramatised real-life contexts. “Sometimes somebody wants to be Queen of the Classroom!” said Olivia, working with a group to bring a book character from Babymouse: Queen of the World into real life. This group hadrespondedtotheideaofgirlbullyingintheirfocus group’s text, and went on to present a brief classroom drama that exemplified a similar situation in the con- text of their own world.
Teacher-directed work further promoted synthesising, as students worked to dramatise between-the-panels action. Particular frames in the graphic novels elicited student participation by providing a clear beginning and end to their drama, within which careful thinking based on textual information supported the invented action. In addition to synthesising, teacher direction also prompted a variety of shared reading opportu- nities (Wason-Ellam, 1991), including choral reading, echo reading, readers’ theatre and simultaneous lis- tening and reading as well as silent reading. As well, deeper themes from the target graphic novels were highlighted in teacher-facilitated discussion, offering a rich context in which to explore concepts related to bullying, the value of the imagination and acceptance of diversity.
One interesting feature of the small-group work was the students’ response to round-robin reading. Such a format is useful for teacher assessment of children’s reading strategies, but is often uncomfortable for chil- drenduetovaryingreadingratesanddifferentialwait time. It was interesting to note how the weaker read- ers,Roge,forexample,aself-professed‘slower’reader,
prepared for his own oral reading while at the same time keeping track of what was going on in the story. When Roge’s turn came to read aloud, he rose to the occasion in full dramatic tone: “I don’t want to hear you – your – little stories about princesses!” said Roge commandingly, skilfully self-correcting. Generally a word-by-word reader, Roge had the time to check his upcomingspeechbubble,rehearseandthenpresenton cue.Meanwhile,theotherstudentspreparedtheirown portions to read aloud, in addition to skimming and scanning the illustrations. It appears that students can multi-task during round-robin reading with graphic texts, and in this study, such oral reading – useful for the teacher in terms of informal assessment for learn- ing – did not present with boredom or anxiety in any of the participants.
Key comprehension strategies for use with graphic nov- els. In addition to comprehension strategies suit- able for application to other types of texts, the students were learning and practising a variety of graphicnovelform-specificstrategies(alsoincludedin Table 2). These strategies were self-disclosed on the fi- nal questionnaire in terms of students’ metacognitive knowledge regarding graphic novel reading as well as observed in their reading and their writing dur- ing class time. The students identified that they were connecting lettering style, format and colour of text with the emotional climate of the story. The students alsoreflectedonpurposesforparticularpanelssuchas full-pagepanels,two-pagespreads,overlappingpages and floating panels. These Grade 4s also noted the im- portance of paying attention to speech bubble format,
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including broken, tiny, jagged and wobbly lines. Most of the students were aware of conventions to dis- close narration, such as text boxes at the top of each panel:
“‘Why is the narrator always in a box?’ asked Charles. The students deliberated. ‘So it stands out’, said Becky. ‘And we know where the narrator is’”.
Some of the students mentioned depth of field as im- portant to understanding the story, including explana- tions of the uses of middle view, close-up, panorama, distance and long shots.
After a teacher explanation of middle distance, long shot, panorama and close-up perspectives, students were asked to skim through the books to find exam- ples. Immediately, the students were eagerly engaged as detectives:
“Is this long shot?” asked Allie. “Yes!” said the teacher. “Found a close up!” called Brittany. “I found a long one! A long shot!” cried Anthony. “I found my first panorama!” said Roge. “Middle distance is the most common!” called Ellary, perceptively.
It should be noted that such a discussion of narra- tive distance is generally reserved for mature stu- dents at the senior high school and university lev- els, in a context of classic narrative texts. That such a discussion could occur at this grade level is a trib- ute to the students’ deep involvement in the reading and the richness offered within the graphic texts at hand.
Table 2 includes information about the types of strate- gies demonstrated by students, categorising them in terms of their basis in awareness of self, aware- ness of task and awareness of text, three categories within which metacognitive reading comprehension processes have been delineated in children’s read- ing (Brenna, 1991). In addition, Table 2 identifies which strategies are suitable for a variety of tex- tual forms, referring to these as ‘master keys’, and which strategies are intended for specific use with graphic novels, identifying these as “graphic novel keys”.
Literary techniques discussed by these Grade 4 stu- dents included an identification of onomatopoeia as a common inclusion in the textual ‘sound track’ of graphic novels, as well as other literary techniques brought to life through the graphic texts. As we dis- cussedtheanticsofHolm’s(2005)Babymouse,onestu- dent pointed to a phrase she correctly identified as an ‘idiom’,whileanotherstudentspokecomprehensively of ‘flashbacks’. It appeared that textual features could be adeptly explained and internalised in the context of the graphic novel texts.
The students also explored depictions of time in the graphic novels noting illustrator techniques such as fade-outs – ‘and changing seasons!’ as Brittany ana- lysed. Not only did students cite their learning in this regard but, on numerous occasions during as- signments requiring student authorship, the children demonstrated application of knowledge through spe- cific choices in illustration. A few days later, an orig- inal segment of illustrated text appeared in Brittany’s portfolio demonstrating the passage of time – her pa- per was divided into four quadrants, and a tree in the top right section of each depicted spring, summer, fall and winter.
It appeared that students had learned, and were ex- citedaboutlearning,awiderepertoireofform-specific comprehensionstrategiesinthecontextofthisstudyof graphic novels, and it is anticipated that these strate- gies could consciously be applied to the reading of visual images outside the classroom, heightening stu- dents’ critical literacy ‘beyond words’ and related to aspects of popular culture, including Internet use. It is alsopossiblethatthedirectteachingandapplicationof form-specific strategies related to graphic novel explo- rationscouldserveasplaceholdersforthedirectteach- ing and learning of other comprehension strategies re- lated to other types of texts. In addition, some of the particular cues noted in the ‘visible’ format of graphic novels, such as narrative distance, have the potential to be applied in other more abstract contexts, and may provehelpfultodevelopingwritersaswellasdevelop- ingreadersintermsofexecutivefunctioningrelatedto the reading and writing process.
Aninconclusivethreadinthedatarelatestoapotential link between a tendency to skip words while reading and preferences for graphic novels. Further research is needed here. Graphic novels display variety in visual sequencing, with panels straying from the traditional left to right mode, as well as texts that utilise an econ- omy of words. Therefore, it is possible that skimming and scanning may hinder reading comprehension of this textual form, and that people who tend to em- ploy skimming and scanning while pleasure reading may have lower preferences for graphic novels than readers who do not skim and scan. Skipping difficult words may affect reading comprehension unless read- ers recognise that context includes visual images as well as words, and are quickly able to scan correct se- quences within collections of images.
A range of responses occurred regarding the ques- tion of whether or not students make pictures in their heads during reading, with seven students indicating ‘always’, two students indicating ‘most of the time’, nine students indicating ‘sometimes’ and three stu- dents indicating ‘not at all’. There did not appear to be a link between visualising during reading and preferences for graphic novels. This is an interest- ing finding as it addresses a common stereotype that reading graphic novels hampers children’s ability to
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visualise. If graphic novels limit visualisation, chil- dren who commonly visualise during reading might tend to reject graphic novels as a preferred textual form, or discuss a shifting related to the use of visualisation.
In terms of the potential for graphic novels to sup- port process drama extensions, the Grade 4 students demonstrated alacrity in presenting tableaus related to their reading, participated easily in improvisations on subject material occurring ‘between frames’ and improvised dialogue between characters as well as ‘hotseating’ particular characters. Group work and classroom presentations occurred fluently, a finding that may reinforce the potential of graphic novels as bridges into dramatic response activities. I conjecture that graphic novels may offer particularly apt fuel for responsesthroughprocessdramabecauseoftheinclu- sionofvisualinformation,dialogueand‘spaces’intext thatsuggestactionbutleavedetailstotheimagination. This sentiment was echoed by one student, who re- ported on the final questionnaire that graphic novels were particularly ‘good for drama’.
In terms of whether graphic novels help us become better readers, two students were unsure, three stu- dents said ‘No’, while the rest of the students affirmed that graphic novels taught a number of things. The following are a summation of comments on this sec- tion of the questionnaire: “graphic novels are a good start for weak readers, you keep reading graphic nov- els and you can understand the words better and you can read faster without making a mistake; yes and how: it’s the WORDS you read; read and read ‘til you get better; you get to read in a fun way; possibly be- cause you are reading; it helps me...switchtochap- ter books”. Students also enthusiastically mentioned learning ‘clues’ to reading the graphic novel form, and cited ideas that connected story understanding with style of speech bubbles, the text format and the order of panels. One student said that graphic novels “make you think” while another said, “some make you think hard”.
The classroom teacher indicated that she was very pleasedwiththe‘voraciousreading’thathadoccurred throughout this study. “To start off a year like this – to get them going on reading – was a wonderful opportunity.” She also indicated that avid readers as well as reluctant readers were motivated by the study, and reported that “so much more was accomplished in terms of the teaching of reading” than she had anticipated.
Educational importance
This graphic novel study appeared to be a worthy classroomevent,fulloflearningpotentialwithregards to reading comprehension techniques ‘beyond words’ that are strictly applicable to graphic texts as well as
‘master key’ strategies applicable to other, wider read- ing and writing situations. It was evident that direct teaching of particular reading strategies was well tol- erated by these students, worked in terms of their ability to practise and later acknowledge what was taught, and was necessary for a full understanding of the complex messages wielded by the graphic novel form as well as enjoyment of this form. As a teacher new to exploring graphic novels with students, I ben- efited greatly from the partnership of the classroom teacher, who was willing to scan resource books and conduct mini lessons outside the small-group activ- ity time. Assistance through resources and opportu- nities to team-teach emerge as important supports if teachers inexperienced with the graphic form are to use graphic novels to their fullest potential. It is rec- ommendedthatpre-serviceeducationprogrammesin- clude graphic novels as classroom resources for ele- mentary students, as graphic novels appear to offer richness in terms of a context for teaching reading comprehension.
Further research
Anumberofspecificresearchquestionsemergedfrom the study, including the following. Do any of the fol- lowing subcategories of readers have a preference for oragainstgraphicnovels:readerswhotendtobeskim- mers or scanners; readers who rely mainly on grapho- phonemic cues during reading; readers who report a lack of visualisation during reading; readers who pre- fer reading orally to reading silently?
Another question that guides us further into relatively unexploredterrainrelatestowhetherthelessonsread- ers learn when attending to the format of graphic nov- els are useful ‘placeholders’ for transferring skills to other types of reading and writing (i.e. narrative dis- tance). A further related question involves students whose reading is on ‘cruise control’ and who do not use thinking as part of the process: will work with graphic novels nudge students into consistent think- ing activity during reading?
As future studies connect graphic novels to class- room practice, observing and questioning students re- garding their comprehension of this textual form will offer more information to further guide and shape our understanding of how children read these multi- modal texts. In addition, further exploration of read- ing behaviours related to graphic novels may refine our understanding of the kinds of ‘keys’ and ‘mas- ter keys’ these texts might support, related to the po- tential metacognitive strategies readers may employ to assist their comprehension of a variety of textual forms.Furtherresearchisrecommendedtodeepenun- derstandings of multimodal comprehension strategies thatworkwithwords,andbeyondwords,inourquest to support the development of readers

SEA: Reading Assessments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SEA: Reading Assessment Data Table

Daniel J. Barnes

Wilmington University

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

            In the classroom, teachers use a variety of tools, strategies, and assessments to monitor students’ progress and abilities. Reading assessments and reading inventories are tools that teachers often use to provide them with additional information on a student’s reading ability and reading level. Strengths and weaknesses can then be identified, and instructional support can be tailored to the specific needs of the student. This information cannot be gathered from every type of reading assessment or reading inventory. Some are highly effective at determining oral reading skills, while others assess reading skills such as decoding, fluency, and comprehension. The reading assessment(s) that a teacher uses will depend on what information they are seeking to obtain about the student(s). For the purposes of this paper, I will discuss and analyze the following six formal and informal reading diagnostic assessments: the Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT), the Slosson Oral Reading Test (SORT), the Basic Reading Inventory (BRI), the Wepman’s Auditory Discrimination Test (WADT), the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills – 3^rd Edition (TVPS-3), and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test – 3^rd Edition (WRMT-III).

            The Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT) provides a quick estimate of the general verbal cognitive ability of those with learning disabilities, mental retardation, blindness, and orthopedic disabilities, as well as those who are gifted or who have no disabilities (Academic Therapy Publications). The SIT can be used for any individual regardless of ability level, making it a reliable screening test. The test measures IQ scores ranging from 10-164, encompassing individuals ranging from extremely low mental retardation to those who are highly gifted. Since it is meant as a screening test, it should not be used in final placement decisions.

            The SIT consists of 187 questions across six cognitive domains including: vocabulary, general information, similarities and differences, comprehension, quantitative memory, and auditory memory. The test must be administered individually and hand-scored, but it is relatively easy to score. The test takes about 15-30 minutes depending on the ability and age of the test taker. Very young children, those with mental disabilities, and the very gifted may take longer to finish the test. The cost of the SIT makes the test an attractive option for those looking to administer a reading assessment and intelligence test. The reliability of the SIT is one reason that the test should not be used in final placement decisions. Since the SIT measures verbal cognitive ability, many individuals may not be as successful when taking this test as they might if the test was administered in a different manner. Underrepresented minorities, very young children, and those with auditory discrimination disabilities might struggle with the SIT due to the verbal component.

            The Slosson Oral Reading Test (SORT) is used to provide a quick estimate of target word recognition levels for children and adults (Collaborative Center for Literacy Development). The test can be used for grade levels 1-12, and consists of providing students with a list of 20 words to assess word recognition and a basal reading level. Students are given lists containing 20 words each, and proceed until they miss a word on a list. This information determines the student’s grade level. Words are chosen from a variety of reading lists and textbooks at selected grade levels so that they represent a steady progression of difficulty from the pre-primer to high school level (Collaborative Center for Literacy Development). Words are not chosen according to their phonic characteristics, therefore the SORT cannot be used to determine a person’s knowledge of grapheme/phoneme relationships (Westby, 1995).

            The entire test is very quick and easy to administer, taking only about 5 minutes or so to finish. There is some evidence as to the reliability and validity of the SORT as an assessment tool. Reliability can be attributed to the SORT containing a large number of items, a good sampling of test items, and test specificity as only oral reading is being measured (Kids IQ Test Center). Perhaps the greatest aspect of the SORT is that it is aligned with the Common Core State Standards. The CCSS are the foundation for everything that is done in the classroom, and lessons and assessments should reflect the standards and what students should know by the end of their grade level. The SORT does contain limitations, however. The SORT does not provide norms that are disaggregated by individuals of differing cultures or needs.

            The Basic Reading Inventory (BRI) is an individually administered informal reading test. The test consists of graded word lists and graded passages that help teachers gain insights into students’ reading behavior (Johns, 2012, p. 4). The goal of the BRI is to help teachers make instructional decisions based on the needs of individual students. Information can be obtained relating to word recognition, fluency, and comprehension, and instructional support can then be provided to meet deficiencies in one or more of these areas. The BRI helps determine a student’s three reading levels: independent level, instructional level, and frustration level. If students are placed in instructional materials where they are able to pronounce approximately 95 percent of the words, they tend to be successful readers who are on task (Johns, 2012, p. 4).  

          The BRI can be used for students of all grade levels, provided they can read the words on the lists and in the graded passages. The assessment is time consuming to complete, but provides the teacher with extremely valuable information on a student’s reading ability, including strengths and weaknesses. The graded word lists reflect a progression in difficulty as the grade level increases, and the comprehension questions relating to the graded passages include five different types: topic, fact, inference, evaluation, and vocabulary. The BRI is an excellent resource and tool for teachers that have the time to conduct it for students, as they will then be able to differentiate instruction to better reach the needs of individual students.

            The Wepman’s Auditory Discrimination Test (WADT) is designed to measure the ability of children to recognize small differences between English phonemes (Encyclopedia of Children’s Health). The test consists of 40 pairs of words that require the child to differentiate between words that are identical and words that differ by a single phoneme. The test is administered orally by the examiner reading each word-pair only once, followed by the child indicating whether the word-pair consists of different or identical words (Encyclopedia of Children’s Health). The child’s performance is then rated from “very good development” for the child’s age to “below adequate” for the child’s age.

            The WADT is widely considered to be both reliable and valid, with norms based on the scores of 2,000 children (Encyclopedia of Children’s Health). Limitations exist with the WADT, however. There is concern about bias against students of low socioeconomic status and those with differing cultural or linguistic needs. These students may have phonological patterns that are different than students from middle class or those who practice what would be called standard English. In addition, since the test is read orally to students, it cannot be used as a sole measure of reading ability. Additional tests would need to be administered that relate to the other components associated with reading ability.

            The Test of Visual Perceptual Skills – 3^rd Edition (TVPS-3) is intended to give professionals a reliable and valid measure of a child’s perceptual abilities (Martin). The TVPS-3 assesses the visual perceptual strengths and weaknesses of students aged 4 years 0 months through 18 years 11 months. The test takes approximately 30 minutes depending on the age of the child, and degree of difficulty experienced, as well as the experience of the examiner (Martin). The test utilizes 112 black and white designs organized in seven subtests arranged in order of difficulty including: visual discrimination, visual memory, spatial relationships, form constancy, sequential memory, visual figure ground, and visual closure.

            The test is given in multiple choice format by the child indicating their choices verbally, by pointing, or by some other agreed upon method of communication. Perhaps the tests biggest strength is that it can be administered to students with or without disabilities. Limitations exist in a few key areas, however. Scoring can be difficult and confusing as to the child’s responses to the visual images. In addition, based on the child’s response rate, the test may take some time to administer. Overall, this test is a highly reliable and valid assessment for testing a child’s visual perceptual skills.

            The Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests – 3^rd Edition (WRMT-III) is designed to assess a child’s reading readiness and reading achievement levels. The WRMT-III consists of nine subtests: phonological awareness, listening comprehension, letter identification, word identification, rapid automatic naming, oral reading fluency, word attack, word comprehension, and passage comprehension. The test can be administered to students in grade levels K-12. The WRMT-III is a comprehensive reading assessment that addresses the main components necessary to become a successful reader. Perhaps the greatest aspect of the WRMT-III is that it identifies individual strengths and weaknesses so that RTI support can be provided to the student, and instruction can be differentiated to reach the needs of all students. The limitation with the WRMT-III is that it is time consuming to conduct due to the fact that it is so comprehensive. Also, students may struggle with certain sections, making the response rate much longer for those areas.

 

ASSESSMENT	PURPOSE	STRENGTHS	WEAKNESSS	APPROPRIATENESS
Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT)	- Used to estimate the cognitive ability of an individual.	- Provides a quick, reliable index of intellectual ability in children and adults. - Can be administered to those who are visually impaired or blind. - Can be used for ages 4 and up.	- Should not be used in final placement decisions. - Not suitable for children under 4 years old.	- Can be used at the beginning of the year to predict reading achievement or to plan a child’s educational program. - Useful in screening students with reading disabilities.
Slosson Oral Reading Test (SORT)	- Used to assess an individual’s level of oral word recognition, word calling or reading level. - Can be used multiple times throughout the year to measure and evaluate progress.	- Can be used for individuals from preschool to adult. - Very quick and easy to administer.	- Does not measure other elements of reading such as fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary. - Intended for screening purposes only. - Not useful as a continual progress monitoring tool to collect multiple data points of students’ performance (Slosson Publications, Inc.)	- Can be used at all times of the year. In the beginning of the year, it can be used to determine a student’s grade level in reading. In the middle of the year, it can be used to assess a student’s progress. At the end of the year, it can be used to determine if a student is in need of further diagnostic assessment.
Basic Reading Inventory	- Used to gain insights into students’ reading behavior. - Used to determine reading ability relating to word recognition, fluency, and comprehension.	- Can be used at every grade level. - Easy to administer. - Results can help support instructional decisions.	- Requires a lot of time to complete the necessary components.	- Can be used throughout the year to determine and measure students’ ability and progress.
Wepman’s Auditory Discrimination Test (WADT)	- Used to test for an auditory discrimination deficit. - Assesses childrens’ ability to recognize differences between phonemes.	- Very quick and easy to administer. - Can be used for children as young as preschool age. - Inexpensive	- Cannot be used as primary factor in predicting reading ability or learning disabilities.	- Can be used at half year intervals for children age 4-8 to monitor progress.
Test of Visual Perceptual Skills – 3rd Ed. (TVPS-3)	- Designed to measure a child’s perceptual abilities.	- Used to assess the visual perceptual strengths and weaknesses of students aged 4 years 0 months through 18 years 11 months. - Can be administered to students with or without disabilities.	- Scoring can be difficult and confusing. -Administration can be lengthy depending on child’s response rate. - The child requires good receptive language skills to complete the assessment.	- May be used to track progress over time.
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test – 3rd Ed.  (WRMT-III)	- Designed to assess reading readiness and reading achievement.	- Helps evaluate struggling readers. - Helps identify strengths and weaknesses for remediation.	- Due to comprehensiveness, can be time consuming to complete.	- Can be used to assess multiple reading skills at different points during the year to provide support where needed.

 

References

Academic Therapy Publications. Slosson Intelligence Test – 3(SIT-R3). 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.academictherapy.com/detailATP.tpl?eqskudatarq=DDD-802&eqTitledatarq=Slosson%20Intelligence%20Test%20-%203%20(SIT-R3)&

Collaborative Center for Literacy Development. Slosson oral reading test (sort). Retrieved from: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=7&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0CE4QFjAG&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kentuckyliteracy.org%2F~literacy%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fresource_tools%2FSlosson%2520Oral%2520Reading%2520Test.pdf&ei=iYUiVJDyFdOmyAT9r4Io&usg=AFQjCNHRQp2dUAr1a0rWmB_gYMIPidzqGA

Encyclopedia of Children’s Health. Auditory discrimination test. Retrieved from: http://www. Healthofchildren.com/A/Auditory-Discrimination-Test.html

Johns, J.L. (2012). Basic reading inventory: eleventh edition. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company: Dubuque, IA.

Kids IQ Test Center. Slosson oral reading test. Retrieved from: http://www.kidsiqtestcenter.com/slosson-oral-reading-test.html

Martin, N.A. Test of visual perceptual skills – 3^rd edition.

Pearson Education. (2014). Woodcock reading mastery tests, third edition. Retrieved from: http://www.pearsonclinical.com/education/products/100000264/woodcock-reading-mastery-tests-third-edition-wrmt-iii.html#tab-details

Slosson Intelligence Test. Retrieved from: http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/SIT.html

Slosson Oral Reading Test. Retrieved from: http://cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/SORT.html

Slosson Publications, Inc. Slosson oral reading test. Retrieved from:     http://www.slosson.com/onlinecatalogstore_c51705.html

Westby, C.E. (1998). Review of the Slosson Oral Reading Test. Mental Measurements Yearbook, 12.

How Children Learn To Read

How Children Learn To Read

Daniel J. Barnes

Wilmington University

            The first step in the process of learning how to read is learning the alphabetic system. Before a child can begin to read or pronounce written words, they must learn the 26 letters of the alphabet. During one of my methods courses I experienced this first hand when working with my friend’s three year old daughter. Having been tasked with completing the Abecedarian Assessment on a child, I went to the only person I knew with a child to help me out. I knew that his daughter Natalie was smart for her age based on my interactions with her socially. Her vocabulary and verbal skills are well above that of a typical three year old child, but I knew that I would encounter many difficulties or impossibilities when administering parts of the assessment. I was proven correct when I had to stop the assessment on the first section titled “Letter Knowledge.” Natalie was unable to correctly identify any letters of the alphabet other than the letters “N” and “L” as they are the first letters of her first and last name. If I had continued to work with Natalie, I would begin by teaching her the alphabet so that she could begin the process of learning to read.

            Once a child learns the letters of the alphabet, they must then learn the sounds, or phonemes, that each letter makes. Relationships can then be made between the individual phonemes and the sounds they make when put together with others to make words. This relationship is known as phonemic awareness, defined as the knowledge that words are made up of a combination of individual sounds (National Reading Panel, p. 2). Phonemic awareness is critical for reading success. Learning a new word involves forming a connection between visual information about the word as it appears in print and its meaning, pronunciation, and other information that is stored in the child’s oral vocabulary. This connection is what enables the reader to access information about the word stored in the brain when the word is encountered in print (Effective Reading Instruction, p. 6). These connections allow children to increase vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension, which are critical skills that proficient readers have.

            In addition to phonemic awareness, phonics is another component of reading instruction that is critical for success when reading. Phonics is the relationship between a specific letter and its sound as it relates to the written word (National Reading Panel, p. 2). Phonics is something that can be observed on a daily basis in elementary and secondary classrooms as students practice sounding out new vocabulary words. When faced with an unfamiliar word in text, students are taught to break the word down into smaller chunks and to sound it out in order to gain an understanding of the correct sound the word makes. Students who do not develop these skills will often struggle with all but the simplest of texts. I have observed this throughout my time in classrooms over the course of this program, and I continue to practice this skill when I read and come across a word I am not quite sure how to pronounce. Teaching students to develop these skills at an early age will help them become better and more effective readers as they will be able to understand the relationships that are made when letters are combined together to form words. Even unfamiliar words will soon be able to be quickly pronounced and will become sight words with increased automaticity. This in turn will increase oral reading rate and fluency.

            Once children understand the alphabetic principle, that words are made of individual sounds, and the relationship between letters in a word, they can begin to practice fluency. Fluency is the ability to read text accurately and smoothly (National Reading Panel). The key word in the definition is “accurately.” It is essential that readers of all ages not only read with appropriate speed, but also that they read with the goal of understanding what they are reading. This is why fluency and comprehension are often talked about in conjunction with one another. Throughout my limited time in classrooms over the course of my experiences in this program I have observed both ends of the spectrum and everything in between where it relates to fluency, oral reading rate, and comprehension. I have practiced DIBELS assessments with students who could only read 30 words per minute but could remember every single detail and important idea of what they read. Other students could read over 100 words per minute but couldn’t remember anything but the smallest details. These students either struggled with comprehension, or were too focused on being a fast reader because the idea they have of good readers is that they are fast. In these instances the students were simply decoding and not gaining anything significant out of the text. I know that at times I have to stop myself when reading because I tend to read too fast and I find myself not remembering things from even a few sentences or paragraphs back. Proficient and effective readers strike a balance between fluency and comprehension that works for them.

            At this point in their reading education, children are or should be working on increasing vocabulary and comprehension. Increasing one’s vocabulary knowledge is important for reading fluency and comprehension because it allows for automatic word recognition as text is read. When children encounter new vocabulary words they should not only learn the meaning of the word, but should also have opportunities to hear and use the word in context in school and at home. If a piece of text contains too many new or difficult words, comprehension can become impossible (National Reading Panel, p. 3). Finally, comprehension is the ultimate goal once children have learned the fundamental elements of reading instruction. Whether reading for business, pleasure, or academics, comprehension is an essential component of effective reading.       Many factors go into comprehension such as decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and background knowledge to name a few. A reader brings all of their learned and practiced skills, combined with their knowledge and experiences, to a piece of text to make connections and to help make a mental representation of the words on the page. In both the elementary and secondary classrooms that I have been in, the students have practiced many strategies to aid in comprehension. I have observed students stop reading at key points to draw what is happening in the story, to close their eyes and visualize, and to talk with a partner about what they just read. Visualizing, making connections, inferring, predicting, evaluating, questioning, and using context clues are reading strategies that students are taught in early elementary school and that they will continue to use throughout their academic, personal, and professional lives.

References

Learning Point Associates (2004). A closer look at the five essential components of effective reading instruction: A review of scientifically based reading research for teachers. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB4QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learningpt.org%2Fpdfs%2Fliteracy%2Fcomponents.pdf&ei=yUsZVOv7IMuzggSw3IHoCQ&usg=AFQjCNFZk12xh7HmLkkukLYjYh-4NLULfg&sig2=6t03D3oUNj0ouzr-Lf1k_Q&bvm=bv.75558745,d.eXY

LEARNS. The national reading panel: five components of reading instruction frequently asked questions. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB4QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scsk12.org%2Fscs%2Fsubject-areas%2Fkweb%2Fimages%2Fnationalreadingpanel_faq.pdf&ei=pEwZVK3DGMixggTyuYCABw&usg=AFQjCNEVoEttO7okrc_F25uPRS0zy3r4sw&sig2=Hds8PImDlwA3hkvvnIElAw

Vacca, J., Vacca, R., Gove, M.,Burkey,L.,Lenhart,L.,McKeon,C. (2012). Reading and learning to read (8^th ed.). Boston: Pearson.